Ancient Astronomers: Prehistoric North American Astronomy

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Etain

PROJECT SUMMARY

The objective of this project is to research the astronomy of prehistoric North American indigenous cultures. As astronomy in native cultures often involves archaeological and anthropological research, this branch of science is also known under the terms archaeo-astronomy, astro-archaeology, and ethno-astronomy. For clarity, the term archaeo-astronomy will be used throughout the project.

The study will focus on the types of astronomical activities such as:

· Evidence of observations - the alignment and orientation of artificial or modified natural structures, or recorded observations

· Possible tools used

· The role of archaeo-astronomy in tribal cultures

In addition the study will also discuss the issues surrounding archaeo-astronomy, particularly in relation to the challenges of research, validation, evidence, and related theories. A glossary has been provided, as well a references for sited material.

Area: The area of study will be North America, with a particular focus on the countries of the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

Timeframe: The period selected for the study is archaeo-astronomical activity up to the arrival and occupation of European settlers in tribal lands.

OBJECTIVE

In comparison to the accepted status of archaeo-astronomical research in other countries, the acceptance of this branch of science is relatively recent in North America, having only been established as a mainstream science in the 1970's. As a result of cultural and often time religious differences and prejudices, evidence for the archaeo-astronomical achievements of prehistoric cultures has historically been suppressed, destroyed, or misunderstood. Taking hold first in Mexico, with the exploration of Mesoamerican sites such as Chichen Itza, archaeo-astronomy has slowly gained acceptance throughout the southwest and midwest United States at major sites such as Chaco Canyon and Cahokia. Yet investigation and recognition of many sites, particularly throughout the heavily populated east coast of the United States is lacking if not non-existent.

Overall, this area of exploration is largely untapped and can provide valuable information into the scientific practices of the past. Recognition by the scientific community and increased public awareness may also promote the long-term preservation of sites, which is often an issue as many are threatened by ignorance, the ravages of time, and over-development.

RESEARCH MATERIAL

Resources used in this study included written material such as books, published research papers, scientific journals, documentaries, and Internet material from reliable sources. Field trips and interviews were also conducted on a limited basis.

Qualifiers for resource usage

1. Results of scientific research at sites which involved standard confirmation methods such as the use of a compass, maps, surveying equipment, photography or aerial photography, computer simulations, and direct observations.

2. Historical recorded observations of activity or site usage by settlers, researchers, or participants.

3. Supported evidence or background material presented by modern day indigenous culture members if the practice of astro-astronomy forms part of a living tradition.

Results

· Constructed a profile on archaeo-astronomical practices in North America

· Highlighted major confirmed sites

· Categorized the types of archaeo-astronomical practices or constructs, such as medicine wheels, chambers, pyramids/mounds, observational pillars, alignments, and recorded observations

· Identified potential sites and ongoing research

· Explored of tools and methods used

· Reviewed of the challenges surrounding the future of archaeo-astronomy in North America

THE RISE OF ARCHAEO-ASTRONOMY IN NORTH AMERICA

The acceptance of archaeo-astronomy in North America had a slow start. Although early

European colonists had observed the social structure, practices, and rituals of the indigenous peoples they encountered, it was not until 1848 that the first serious proposals were put forth by the Smithsonian Institute that the native peoples may have been engaged in scientific pursuits. In the publication "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Volume I, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley", it was postulated that Mesoamerican structures such as the mounds and earthworks of Cahokia may have been constructed based on "encoded geometry" [1]. It would be some years however until research in this area would begin in earnest.

Meanwhile in Europe, interest was growing regarding the relationships between ancient structures and astronomical alignments. In 1894, the publication of Sir J. Norman Lockyer's "Dawn of Astronomy" [2] single-handedly began the rise of archaeo-astronomy in western science. Although inaccurate in many respects, this groundbreaking work laid the foundation that many Egyptian structures, particularly those of a religious nature, had incorporated alignments to specific stars or other astronomical events.

The next major advancement came with the publication of an article in "Nature" in 1963, followed by the books "Stonehenge Decoded" in 1965, and "Beyond Stonehenge" in 1973, by astronomer Dr. Gerald Hawkins. These works offered substantial evidence to the premise that Stonehenge was an astronomical calendar, incorporating a number of alignments to solar and lunar events. It was Hawkins who first coined the terms "astro-archaeology" [3], and "cracking the code" [4], a popular phrase now used by many archaeo-astronomers.

In the 1970's, attention began to turn towards North American cultures. Astronomer Anthony Aveni began the first in-depth study into archaeo-astronomy on these shores,

focusing on the Mesoamerican cultures of the Olmec, Mayan, and Aztec [3]. At a joint conference between the United States and Mexican science communities held in Mexico City in 1973, Aveni proposed the first evidence of a sophisticated and well-developed ancient practice of astronomy. A conference in 1975 at Colgate University followed suite by focusing on Incan astronomy. In 1903, a structure known as Bighorn Medicine Wheel had been discovered in Wyoming. During the 1960's and 70's, a solar physicist and astronomer Dr. John Eddy conducted extensive research at the site, concluding that it contained alignments to the summer solstice, as well as several possible stellar orientations. This led to the examination of similar medicine wheels and stone circles found throughout southern Canada, which has more wheels then any other location in North America [5]. Another milestone was a conference on "Archaeo-astronomy in the Americas" at St. John's College in New Mexico in 1979.

Yet archaeo-astronomy did not gain status as a true science until the University of Oxford research conference series began in 1981. Their mission has been to provide

"An international meeting to study the importance of astronomical phenomena in understanding human cultures" [6]. They continue to be a driving force in the archaeo-astronomical community, holding conferences around the world for the betterment of

research and exploration.

CHALLENGES AND EVIDENCE

The acceptance of archaeo-astronomical alignments has long been a point of contention among scientists from many fields. As a relative newcomer to western science, it falls between archaeology and astronomy, each with its own established methodology, procedures, and traditions.

A. Cultural Bias

The impact that the cultural bias westerners have displayed towards indigenous cultures

cannot be understated, and deserves a discussion of its own.

A belief that native peoples didn't record unusual events or astronomical phenomena such as eclipse or meteor showers.

Writing systems of the native peoples were discredited by European settlers. While writing of Mesoamerican cultures of Mexico and the U.S. southwest have been accepted, written records by native peoples throughout the north are often discredited as the result of "tree roots" and "plows" [3].

Mainstream western science initially held the belief that native peoples were not interested in astronomy.

Western science is isolated from nature, and often has difficulty in understanding the mindset of native cultures.

Western Judeo-Christian culture believes in one "right" answer to everything, while many native cultures often had a multi-tiered belief system that may have had multiple meanings for an object or ritual on many levels.

History is written by the conquerors. Thus, historical evidence has been slanted, suppressed, erroneously interpreted, destroyed through both accidental and intentional means, distorted, stolen, vandalized, and often disturbed to the point of irrevocable disarray.

Much of the knowledge of native peoples was lost after European contact. Within 100 years of initial contact with the invading Spanish conquerors in the southwest, 90% of the native population was dead. This is known as the "Great Dying".

Europeans did not consider the native peoples to be educated or sophisticated. Nor did they consider North America to be inhabited. For this reason, they often did not recognize sites of astronomical significance.

Christian missionaries attempted to eradicate native practices and beliefs. As in the case of the Aztec, going so far as to collect and destroy valuable written books known as Codexes [7], many of which contained astronomical knowledge. Few of these remain.

B. The Scientific Challenges

Setting aside the issues of cultural bias, there are a number of scientific challenges that the science of archaeo-astronomy must face.

Cultural

Astronomy among ancient cultures was closely linked to the daily lives of the community, and played a role in politics, social events, religious activities, and calendar keeping. In most cases, it was exclusively practiced by a priesthood. For this reason,

determining the purpose of astronomy in prehistoric cultures can be a difficult task as very little documentation regarding religious practices remain. Even among modern tribes, information is reluctantly disclosed due to the religious associations. In addition, astronomical activities and practices differed by tribe, and what practices were in effect may have been transmitted orally, leaving no physical artifacts behind. In many cases, native peoples practiced naked eye astronomy, which leaves little evidence except for particular instances where events are known to have been recorded.

Technical

One of the great challenges of archaeo-astronomy is that when evaluating a site, the more potential alignments exist, the more difficult it becomes to verify any of them. This is because it becomes impossible to confirm if the alignments were accidental or intentional. For this reason, astronomers must often limit the number of alignments they can investigate at a particular site. Stellar alignments also tend to be more difficult to verify then solar ones. This is because precession may have altered the alignment, with the result that it can no longer be confirmed through direct observation.

Evaluation and Validation

Successful archaeo-astronomers require a background which incorporates both astronomy and archaeological techniques. A challenge the field faces today, is that earlier excavations of sites by researchers unfamiliar with archaeo-astronomy principles have reconstructed or disturbed sites, removing alignment evidence which may have been represent. In some cases, sites have been vandalized or disturbed, and artifacts removed to museums or private collections. This makes it extremely difficult to determine the original location, age, and purpose of the artifact. Prehistoric sites such as those in the northeast, have been the most heavily affected by modern civilization. This is likely due to it being the location of the oldest and heaviest European settlements. To the current day, the northeast remains the most heavily overpopulated and the least explored. Archaeological sites of any nature are the least preserved and acknowledged.

Rock art, petroglyphs, and pictographs can be difficult to date. In some cases, paint pigments or fragments of brush material can be used. Some sites are interactive and involve an abstract interaction of light and shadow. Such sites are difficult to determine and are often discovered by chance as the "show" may only become visible for brief periods at specific times of the year such as the solstice, and while observed from a specific location.

Preservation and Acknowledgement

Existing sites must be preserved and protected. For this reason, their existence is often kept a secret. This is a double-edged sword as the secrecy surrounding a site may result in its not being fully documented, or acknowledged. In addition, many sites are still actively considered to be sacred areas as held by the modern day tribal peoples, and these are also closely guarded. On the other hand, sites that are publicized have been vandalized, destroyed and the artifacts stolen. Some sites have gained "tourist" status, with the result that roads, viewing stands, or other structures may be built nearby, disturbing or contaminating the original site.

C. Validating the Evidence

The archaeo-astronomer today has a wide variety of tools and methods available to explore and validate prehistoric sites. To conduct a good investigation, first and foremost, the evaluation must be undertaken with a scientific approach, avoiding far-fetched explanations such as the paranormal or attempts to 'prove' the case by unorthodox means. Objectivity is imperative, particularly when dealing with art. For example, a petroglyph of a horned animal next to a solar symbol may represent the constellation Taurus, or perhaps, it represents a cow on a sunny day [8]. Without conclusive evidence, a site cannot be confirmed. Checking for astronomical symbols and an east-west orientation however, can be significant [9].

A good investigation asks the questions:

- Were observations done?

- How were the observations made?

- Did they use tools to conduct observations?

- Are there alignments to the sun, moon or stars?

Identifying alignments can be accomplished through two means, by direct observation, or by measurements and calculations. To avoid confusion, the number of potential alignments included in the study should be limited. A wise approach is to begin with one event such as solstice, then continue with an equinox, lunar alignments, and lastly stellar [9]. Also consider known facts about a culture. In some cases, modern tribal members may be able to offer assistance regarding legends or traditional practices at the site [10]. Another clue is to determine if a standard unit of measure was used in construction of a site. The presence of mathematical relationships in a site's construction or orientation can often be an indicator of astronomical usage.

When solstice alignments are present, in most cases, the winter solstice alignment will be more important then the summer solstice. This is due to the religious belief system, which attached a birth and resurrection theme to the annual cycle of the sun [4].

Solstice alignments are also generally easier to identify then an equinox. This is because at the equinox, the sun appears to move 10 times faster across the sky then it does during the solstice. In cases where a solstice alignment can be confirmed through direct observation, the time factor plays less of a role. When evaluating a site, it is also

necessary to know the latitude of the location, as the solstice positions of the sun differ by latitude [10].

Confirming stellar alignments can be the most challenging aspect of archaeo-astronomy. The effects of precession can make a direct observation of a stellar alignment impossible if the alignment is over 1,500 years old, however it can be used to date an alignment, as it may have existed in the past [3].

When evaluating alignments, true north should always be used rather then magnetic north [4]. The magnetic poles of the planet move over time, and are not historically consistent. A good map will show the difference between the two, known as "magnetic declination". This figure should be determined in advance and utilized in calculations.

CATEGORIZATION

Evidence of archaeo-astronomical activity ranges from the simple to the complex. Some occurrences utilized a variety of techniques. The following category structure is proposed as a key to understanding the complex and sophisticated examples of prehistoric North American archaeo-astronomy.

ACTIVITY

To understand the astronomy of ancient peoples, we must first attempt to place it the proper context. Unlike the division of science and religion, religion and state which many of us know today, ancient social structures often included a blend of mythology, ritual, politics, sciences, and religion.

It is likely that in prehistoric times, people largely practiced naked eye astronomy [4].

We can hypothesize, based on the evidence in other cultures world wide, that the cycles of the sun, moon, and stars formed the basis of their native calendar. While many tribes

were known to have used a luni-solar system, tracking both the annual cycles of the sun and moon, some like the Navajo and Pawnee relied upon the rising of particular constellations by which to set their calendar. Such constellations of course, differ from the which we are familiar today.

The author and lecturer of comparative mythology Joseph Campbell, noted that there were five prevalent themes that universally existed in primitive myth. These are [8]:

· The sky as a symbol of freedom

· The cycle of night and day

· The night as a sky clock

· Duality of male and female

· Birth, growth, and death

Several of these key themes involve celestial themes, which can be found extensively in native myth. Traditional tales revolve around Father Sky, the Morning Star, Star Woman, and Spider Woman who wove the web of the stars. In many tribes, it was believed that the dead traveled over the Milky Way to the next realm, while other tribes claimed descendent from the Sun [12].

Astronomical deities also play a large role in native cultures, and are typically depicted bearing astronomical symbols. The Hopi kachinas (supernatural beings) Tawa, A'hul, A'Hote, an Sohu are often depicted with celestial images on their outfits. The Zuni spirit Hemucikwe wears the Morning Star and crescent on his face, while the Navajo Black God of the night sky bears the Pleiades on his temple [3].

RECORDED OBSERVATIONS

Many westerners have made the mistake of assuming that native people did not have written languages, and did not record historical or important astronomical events. The assumption has also been made that native art, such as petroglyphs or pictographs, sand art etc. is of a crude and childlike quality. Yet evidence exists that a number of tribes were using a written language based on a form of alphabet or hieroglyphic language at the time of European contact. This includes the Cherokee, Zuni, Pawnee, Mayans and Aztecs.

In regards to recorded astronomical observations, a number of examples can be found dating from the initial European contact. The Lakota were known to have resident historians known as the Keeper of the Counts. Such individuals on several occasions were witnessed recording unusual astronomical events on buffalo hides. In 1822, a meteor shower was recorded at Ft. Snelling, Minnesota [9]. In 1833, a Lakota named Long Ears recorded the Leonid meteor shower, while in 1879 another individual recorded a solar eclipse. Both were drawn on similar hides. Several petroglyphs are also believed to represent astronomical events. At Chaco Canyon, a pictograph on a canyon wall may represent the Crab Nebula supernovae that occurred on July 4, 1054 [3]. Several nearby images may likewise depict the event.

Both the Shawnee and Navajo were also known to create star maps on the ceilings of sacred caves and ceremonial buildings known as kivas. Both caves and kivas represented the sacred womb, the place of emergence or "sipapu" (Pueblo) from which the culture was "born". The ceilings of these sacred spaces were decorated with stars, constellations, and other astronomical symbols. 50 - 100 prehistoric star ceilings are known today, and many are still in use by the modern descendents of these tribes.

A number of examples can be found throughout the Canyon De Chelly area in the U.S. One archaeo-astronomer was said to have interviewed a number of modern day Navajo on the meaning of these ceilings. One of the individuals presented an image of one of the ceilings to his father for examination. He reported "When I showed the drawing to my father, he burned it. My father said that that place is so sacred, that it would be disrespectful to the yei (supernatural beings) for us to have a copy in the house" [14].

Some star ceilings also incorporate images of animals such as bulls, coyotes and eagles into the imagery. These are believed to represent native constellations. In several examples, asterisms have been found carved or pecked into rock surfaces

or on sacred implements such as rattles [15]. Primarily, these are in the recognizable likeness of Ursa Major and the Pleiades.

The most common astronomical symbols that appear in native art are rayed circles representing the sun, crescents for the moon, and four or five pointed stars. Additional symbols with astronomical meanings are the circle containing an equal armed cross which represents the four events of winter and summer solstice, and spring and autumn equinox as well as the four quarters. Two of the more complicated symbols are the spiral and the triangle. The spiral is often found in rock art or caves, and is typically used in conjunction with solar and lunar time keeping.

The triangle is another important symbol with a deeply complex meaning, and perhaps the one most misunderstood by westerners. Closely tied to the native concept of the emergence from the Great Mother, the triangle had a multi-layered meaning, which included the concept of birth as well as time. Although this is often mentioned in textbooks, the main point is left unspoken so as not to offend Judeo-Christian sensibilities. The triangle, and mound both represent the womb and birth canal. For this reason, the triangle has historically played a large role in native art, particularly in Mesoamerican cultures. Often misinterpreted to be "arrowheads", the symbol can be found throughout the Mayan and Aztec religious art as representing "time", "birth", and sometimes the "House of the Sun" [18]. An excellent example of this concept has been discovered in the Sandia Mountains of New Mexico. Known as the Petroglyph Calendar, an equilateral triangle was found carved into a rock. Research has shown that this small triangle was in fact a solar calendar. When a gnomon (now lost) was placed in a carved hole, it was found to have alignments to the summer and winter solstices. Incredibly, archaeo-astronomers were also able to prove that the upper point of the triangle was aligned to the Pole or North Star, Polaris, in approximately 1200 ad [4].

METEORS

Among prehistoric peoples, meteorites may have had special significance. Called the "Black Star" by some Plains tribes, several instances have been found where the native peoples had collected meteorites and apparently utilized them in religious practices.

Two known specimens, the Camp Verde and Bloody Basin meteorites were found wrapped in a sacred cloth woven from feathers, and placed on the top of small stone cairns. Chemical analysis has proven that both specimens are from the Barringer Crater site in Arizona. Two additional meteorites at Chihuahua, Mexico were also placed in stone cairns. Although rare, several other examples are known to exist [14]. In specific instances, tribes such as the Lakota were known to have recorded the observance of meteors and comets on hides. Two examples depicting comets can be found at the State Historical Society of North Dakota [19].

MONOLITHS, MEGALITHS, DOLMENS

An astronomical alignment or orientation is an object or objects, artificial or natural that have been situated in such a way that astronomical alignments are present. This may involve placing boulders, walls, earthworks, poles, or modifying natural features, in such a way that when observed from a specific viewing location, an individual can view a particular astronomical event. Most commonly, this involves alignments to solar events such as the solstices or equinoxes, lunar standstills, and the rise of particular stars or constellations. The only known record of the construction of an alignment dates to 600 ad. Priests from the Mesoamerican city of Teotihuacan sent out an expedition party to determine the best location from which to observe a particular event [20]. In this case, they were searching for a site at which the sun would appear to stand still during the summer solstice. The location was at the Tropic of Cancer, at latitude of 23.5° north.

Having found it, an observation temple was built near the site, from which the summer solstice sun could be seen to rise over Cerro Picacho Peak [4].

At Hovenweep National Monument in Utah, the Anasazi placed two boulders in such a way that they formed a corridor through which to observe the summer solstice [3]. At Chimney Rock in Colorado, the Pueblo situated an observing station so that the moon appears to "stand" over the top of the rock during the extreme northern position of the moon, known as the lunar standstill [4]. In Blue Mounds State Park in Minnesota, a prehistoric earthwork wall has been found with alignments to the spring equinox sunrise and sunset [19].

A number of monoliths, megaliths, carefully modified or adjusted boulders, and dolmens can be found throughout North America. The majority of these are located in the northeast [15]. Unfortunately, the majority has never been investigated at depth. Those that have been examined, have been often been found to be aligned to the solstices, equinoxes, stellar risings, or lunar standstills. The origin of these alignments is still a mystery. Many such placements have been located in the neighborhood of astronomically oriented stone chambers, and nearby, examples of script are often found which suggest runic or ogdam styles of writing. This somewhat controversial evidence suggests that in prehistoric times, the Norse, who are known to have ventured into what is now Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, ventured even further down the coast into what is now the northeastern United States.

MOUNDS, MOUNTAINS, PYRAMIDS AND LODGES

It is not well known, but there once existed nearly a hundred thousand prehistoric mounds and pyramids across North America. Of these, the pyramids of Mexico are the most well known, followed by Monks Mound at Cahokia, Illinois. The true number of mounds can never be known, as within the last several hundred years, they have been destroyed in the thousands to make way for modern cities, malls, highways, and agriculture. Often mistaken as "indian forts" [23] or small hillocks, to this day, the majority of mounds have never been investigated. Many of the remaining mounds now stand on privately owned property, while a few sites have been designated as national or state parks.

Certain mountains were sacred to many native peoples as symbols of the Great Mother, or Mother Earth, the rounded shape of the mountain representing the cosmic womb from which all life emerged [24]. In many cases, the cultures resorted to creating artificial mountains in the form of pyramids and mounds, medicine lodges, ceremonial structures such as "sweat lodges", and even their homes. The mounds served a variety of purposes, including ceremonial and political use, locations at which to perform birth and death rituals, and in many cases, served as astronomical viewing platforms or components involving an alignment.

The most famous pyramid in North America is the temple of the serpent deity Kulkulcan in Mexico. The pyramid is four sided to represent the four quarters. Each side contains 91 steps, so that (4x91) = 364. Including the central viewing platform at the top, this totals 365, the number of days in the year. A unique feature of this structure is that at specific dates, the Pleiades align with the top of the pyramid. To the ancient Maya, this constellation represented the "rattle" of the sacred serpent Kulkulcan, also known as Quetzalcoatl. Along the bottom of steps rests large stone serpent heads, and in this, the main celestial alignment lies. At the equinoxes, an amazing spectacle occurs. The pyramid has been constructed in such a way so that a play of light and shadow is activated, and the image of a giant serpent appears to be writhing down the side of the pyramid, as if climbing down from the sky. Many thousands flock to the site to witness this each year [8].

The largest mound north of Mexico is Monks Mound at the ancient prehistoric city of Cahokia. The entire complex covers 1700 acres, and contains at least 120 mounds. Dating to approximately 1150 - 1250 ad, it is believed that at one time, 30,000 - 50,000 people once lived at the city. Much of the site has since been destroyed, but researchers have been reconstructing the complex with the aid of modern tribal members. Current evidence shows that the central mound once stood at the center of a large astronomical figure called a "solar wheel", consisting of a circle with an equal armed cross inside marking out the four quarters. In the case of Cahokia, four smaller mounds marked out the cardinal points [25]. At a site known as "America's Stonehenge" in New Hampshire, two mounds dated to be over 4,000 years old are the central feature at a complex site, from which megalithic alignments to the solstices and equinoxes, as well as the "cross-quarter" days can be observed. The mounds are believed to have been used as viewing platforms from which to observe the alignments [26].

A few of the many mounds in North America:

Description	Ref.
Moundville, Alabama hosts the third largest pyramid in North America. The structure is a step pyramid, and rises over 55ft.	[27]
Fish Farms State Preserve, Iowa. 28 mounds once stood at the site.	[28]
The Toltec Mounds of Arkansas once numbered over a dozen, and yet only several remain. It has been confirmed that the site contains alignments to the equinoxes and the rising and setting of the star Vega.	[14]
Etowah Mounds, Georgia hosts seven mounds.	[29]
Wickliffe Mounds, Kentucky claims several mounds although the actual village has been overlaid with a parking lot.	[30]
Louisiana State University hosts two mounds, dated to over 5,000 years old.	[31]
Over 600 mounds once existed in Michigan, and 500 more were destroyed to make way for development.	[23]
A number of mounds existed in Mississippi. Dating to 2,000 years old, most have been destroyed for housing developments.	[32]
18 mounds in Minnesota were destroyed to "improve the view" of a new park dedicated to the mounds. Only a few remain.	[33]
The oldest mound in North America has been dated to 7,500 years old. It is at L'Anse-Amour, Newfoundland.	[34]

STONE CIRCLES, MEDICINE WHEELS, WOODHENGES

Like mounds, stone circles or "medicine wheels" can be found throughout North America, but particularly in the northern latitudes. More then 50 are known to exist in

the United States and Canada. Typically they take the form of small stone circles and wheels which are comprised of a central stone cairn or mound, and a series of radiating spokes that have an associated astronomical alignment. In some cases, concentric rings surround the circle, and smaller mounds are located at the cardinal points forming a solar wheel symbol [36]. Evidence also points to the existence of prehistoric circles constructed of logs or poles, dubbed "woodhenges".

It is likely that the circles in all their forms have at one time been used by prehistoric peoples to observe astronomical events, however, relatively few sites have been examined. Of the few that have been confirmed, an excellent example is BigHorn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming. Built between 1200 - 1700 ad by the Plains people, it was studied in the 1972 by astronomer John Eddy. His findings revealed that a major alignment existed with the summer solstice. In addition, he found that the site had potential alignments to the rising of the stars Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius, which occurred two months after the solstice [3]. In the 1920's, anthropologist George Grinnell noted that the local Cheyenne tribe regarded the site as a medicine wheel, a place of spiritual significance used in religious ceremonies. Such wheels reflect a similar architectural plan to a sacred lodge, which is a larger hut-like structure. The site consists of a central stone cairn and radiating rays, surrounded by a ring of small stones. At each point in this outer ring are smaller cairns. A buffalo skull was found on the east cairn where it faced the rising sun. Modern Crow have referred to this site as the "Sun's Tipi", and regard the east cairn as the most sacred part of the structure.

The first woodhenge in North America was discovered at the prehistoric city of Cahokia in Illinois. Excavations of large circular depressions in the ground uncovered a series of post holes placed around the perimeters of the circles. Samples of wood taken from the holes revealed that the posts were red cedar, a sacred tree to the ancient people of Cahokia. In all, five similar structures once stood in the area. Dated to over 1,000 years old, researchers believe that the poles of the circles were used to mark out astronomical events such as the solstices and equinoxes [37], possibly for ceremonial purposes.

Additional sites:

· Alberta, Canada has more wheels then anyplace else on earth [5]. Two of these are

Sundial Hill, and Moose Mountain Wheel. Sundial Hill consists of a central cairn and a pair of spokes that form a viewing passage. When standing on the cairn, the summer solstice sunset can be observing rising between the walls of the passage. Moose Mountain Wheel is known to have an alignment to the summer solstice. Several stellar alignments are suspected but not confirmed [39].

· Miami Circle, Florida. This site was discovered quite by surprise, by workers building a hotel in the tourist area of Miami. Research is still ongoing, but points to its use as an astronomical observing site. Apparent alignments exist to the summer and winter solstice sunrise and sunset. Fortunately, the site is now under protection from development [40].

CALENDARS

Where time keeping is concerned, the prehistoric peoples of North America relied on much different methods then we use today. Unlike the written calendar by which we mark time, to the native tribes, calendar keeping was often the exclusive domain of the priesthood, and often expressed in 3-dimensional terms.

There are at least two recorded witness accounts of researchers observing a native shaman making astronomical observations for calendar keeping. The first was made by

Frank Cushing of the Smithsonian Institute in 1890 while visiting the Zuni tribe. He observed that two individuals known as the Sun and Bow Priests, would sit on a particular stone in a ruins known as Matsaki, and make an observation of the sun, after which they cut a notch into a wooden calendar stick. The other occasion was witnessed by Alexander Stephen from the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1891. Several days prior to the winter solstice, he saw a Hopi priest observing the position of the sun in regards to the horizon at Eldon Mesa. On the day of the solstice, the priest announced that the sun had arrived at his "house in the west" [3].

In traditional tribal cultures, the lives of the people were intricately tied to the natural rhythms of the cosmos. This was expressed in a variety of ways, by the construction of horizon calendars, chamber calendars, sun clocks, alignments, and carefully crafted interplays of light and shadow. However the calendar was expressed, all the variations

allowed the cultures to track the seasons and cycle of the year. The Inuit culture of the Artic circle is one of the oldest groups in the Americas, dating over 13,000 years old. Although their society was not highly organized, they utilized a 13 month lunar calendar, and observed the rising of stars Altair and Tarazed to signal the return of seasonal sunlight [41]. Many tribes used an annual calendar, but by far the most intricate and complex calendar was devised by the ancient Mayans.

To the Mayans, the calendar was both sacred and political, and many Mayan rulers are depicted with symbols of astronomical time keeping. The Mayans were obsessed with time, and developed the most accurate calendar system to date. Originally using a lunar calendar, they eventually developed a complex system that used three calendars simultaneously. Among their many achievements were accurately tracking the cycles of the moon, sun, Venus, and Pleiades. The tzolkin was a 260 day calendar based on a lunar cycle and associated to the 9 month period of human gestation. It appears to have been the oldest of the three systems, and was generally used for purposes akin to modern day astrology. The second calendar was the haab, a 365.2420 day calendar [42] based on the solar year. This comprised a year of 18 months of 20 days each with an additional 5 intercalary days added at the end as needed. The haab was used for civil and agricultural purposes [43]. Together, the tzolkin-haab were used in a 52 year cycle known as the Calendar-Round, which also included timings to the Pleiades [44]. Lastly, the Long Count calendar was used to track long periods of time as the name suggests. This consisted of 13 baktun cycles, where each tun consisted of 360 days, and a baktun equaling 144,000. The Toltecs and Aztecs would later adopt these calendars, and some of the ancient calendar practices and religious traditions associated with them are still used by their modern day descendents [45].

Horizon calendars are situated against, and utilizing the horizon. Such sites contain natural or artificial structures that were aligned to astronomical events as viewed from a specific viewing location. Typically, multiple sites were used throughout the year, each one interacting with a specific event that signaled a point on the annual calendar. The location of these sites was generally known only to the priesthood. It is known that the Hopi communicated the knowledge of the locations in an intricate song and ritual [4].

Sacrifice Rock in Zion National Park is the most unique sun calendar known. Immediately after being reported in the media and announced as an archaeo-astronomical site, it was vandalized. For this reason, it no longer receives wide publicity. Originally mistaken as another petrogylph site, astronomers have since proven that this amazing arrangement of rocks produces an incredible display of light, shadow, and art at the summer solstice. The main rock wall is covered with a number of petroglyphic images and faces east. The images are recognized as having astronomical significance. These include a spiral, and a circle and dot which local tribal members have identified as a sun and umbilical cord. Other figures are said to be eagle feet and a coyote. Near the center of the rock wall is a wedge shaped opening representing the sipapu, or birth canal, the "place of emergence" for southwestern native peoples. At the solstice sunrise, sunlight passing over the modified rock forms nearby produces the shadowy figure of a coyote head on the rock wall. The coyote is traditionally the trickster in native lore, which was said to have assisted in the creation of humankind. This image is visible for approximately an hour. As the sun progresses, the coyote shadow moves downward along the wall, finally aligning with the petrogylph images and appearing to "swallow" the spiral [9].

At Chaco Canyon, we find the most famous sun clock known. Discovered in 1977, the site includes two petroglyph carvings of spirals. The larger spiral has 18.6 grooves, representing the 18.6 year lunar standstill. At the summer solstice, sunlight causes a shaft or "sun dagger" of light to fall onto the large petroglyph spiral on an inner rock wall. At the winter solstice, two daggers appear on the spiral [46].

Chaco Canyon alignments [47]:

Summer solstice	Single dagger appears through center of large spiral
Winter solstice	Two daggers bracket the large spiral
Equinoxes	Single dagger appears through center of small spiral
Lunar northern extreme	Moonlight shadow falls on first groove on large spiral
Lunar southern extreme	Moonlight shadow falls on center groove on large spiral

EARTHWORKS, WALLS AND EFFIGIES

Earthworks which are astronomically related, yet not of a mound or pyramid shape have been recorded across North America. This type of site tends to be more complex then the more simple mound sites. Earthwork sites consist of large piles of earth, molded into fantastic shapes such as serpents, bears, thunderbirds, and geometric forms [4].

The most well known earthwork is Serpent Mound at Brush Creek, Ohio. This construction forms the image of a large snake, and appears to be swallowing a separate egg or oval shaped mound. Incredibly, the full structure measures 1300 ft [48]. Evidence points to an astronomical link between the serpent and the constellation Draco, which thousands of years ago contained the pole star Thuban. In Newark Ohio, we find another mound site with a variety of earthwork forms including walls, an octagon and an observatory mound. Once covering more then 4 miles, research at the site has concluded that the primary function was to observe the moons most northern extreme, which occurs every 18.6 years [49]. Another series of Ohio earthworks once stood some 25 miles east of Cincinnati. Several of the walls were 2000 ft in length. Archaeo-astronomers believe that a "Great Hopewell Road" once connected a dozen earthwork sites throughout Ohio with the great center at Newark. A common unit of measurement has been found at all the sites which remain standing [50].

CHAMBERS

Chambers in an archaeo-astronomical sense, contain aspects of both sun calendars and sacred caves. Such caves are nearly always found in pyramids, mounds, and at sacred mountains. While a natural cave can exist in any locale, stone chambers or "beehive" chambers are found primarily throughout the northeastern section of North America. Construction at the sites is remarkably similar. Nearly all are oriented to face the east, and were constructed in such a way so that sunlight at a particular point of the year could fall into the innermost section, often illuminating artwork inside [15]. Such chambers are typically found in the vicinity of megaliths and dolmens. The similarity of these structures to those constructed in Europe and Teutonic lands has given strength to the conviction that Europeans visited in prehistoric times. Members of modern tribes have not claimed an association to the chamber sites, and adding to the confusion surrounding their origin and purpose is the fact that early colonists to North America often utilized the sites as root cellars and storage areas. In some instances, this usage resulted in disturbing or damaging the site. In particular cases, colonists and settlers intentionally dismantled the chambers and used the stone for the construction of homes and fences. Chambers are one of the least studied archaeo-astronomical forms, yet over 40 exist in Vermont alone. Although only a few of these have been studied and their astronomical significance confirmed, several of the best examples can be found at the Calendar I and II sites. At II, we find the largest known stone chamber in North America with an interior of 10 x 20 ft. It is aligned so that the winter solstice sunrise illuminates the rear of the chamber [11].

Characteristics of chambers [15]:

A long axis lies in one of these alignments

a. due east, aligns to sunrise on equinoxes, declination 0

b. declination +23.5 to east, sunrise of summer solstice

c. declination -23.5 to east, sunrise of winter solstice

d. aligns due south or to stellar object

COMPLEX STRUCTURES

The culmination of prehistoric astronomy in North America resulted in the construction of

major ceremonial centers that incorporated astronomical alignments into the architectural design of buildings and roadways. The level of sophistication that exists in such sites demonstrates that some communities of prehistoric peoples had developed an understanding of the complex cycles of the sun, moon, stars, and planets.

Observatories

In several cases, observatories were constructed which are physically similar to those in use today. They are primarily found in the Mesoamerican culture, in what are now Mexico and the southwest of the U.S. The Caracol ("snail" shaped) observatory at Chichen Itza was constructed with a series of small windows that align to the rising of Venus and the equinoxes [35]. Another example stands at the Mayan city of Palenque [52]. A tall Anasazi structure called the "castle" at Hovenweep may also have been used as an observatory, as small windows are situated to view the equinoxes and solstices [3].

"Zenith tubes" are another type of observatory used by the Mayans. These tubes were used similar to the transit telescopes of today. Their simple construction consisted of an underground chamber with a small tube leading to the surface. They were used to observe and time the solar zenith and the zenith passages of stars and planets [42]. At Xochicalco, an observatory cave leads to a chamber with a stone lined tube to the surface. The tube was constructed so that twice a year, on approximately May 14th and June 28th, the sun crossed the Tropic of Cancer and sunlight shone directly down the tube [53].

Ceremonial Centers

One of the most spectacular prehistoric cities in North America was Teotihuacan, "Where Men Become Gods" in Mexico. The complex covers 8 square miles, and contained a population of 200,000 at its height [9]. The entire city is laid out according to an astronomical design depicting the cosmos. A central avenue representing the Milky Way, the Street of the Dead runs through its center. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun stands over a sacred cave, believed to be the place of emergence for native peoples. The pyramid is constructed so that an alignment is present with the sunset on August 13th, the "day the world began" in the ancient Aztec religion. The pyramid of the Moon sits at the northern end of the road, and a series of six smaller pyramids along the central avenue represent the Pleiades. The city was specifically constructed on this location so that an alignment could be observed with the winter solstice sunrise over the highest mountain in Mexico, Citlaltépetl [55].

Built by the Anasazi in 900 ad, and abandoned by 1200 ad, Chaco Canyon is another great ancient city of North America [56]. More then 30 buildings were carefully placed so as to form a massive astronomically oriented complex. A major ceremonial road, believed to represent the Milky Way, runs due north for 31 miles and ends at a mound representing the place of emergence [57]. A large underground structure at the site, called the Great Kiva, or Casa Rinconda, is believed to have been used for important ceremonies, many of which had astronomical significance. Archaeo-astronomers have found that at the summer solstice, the sun rises through a small portal in the Kiva, and shines into a specially located hole on the far wall. In addition, at the equinox, the sun rises over a nearby mountain, forming a shadow play on the Kiva itself. At the time of the equinox, there is a balance of equal night and equal day. This is dramatically demonstrated by a shadow which falls onto the Kiva, splitting it into two equal halves,

one half in light, and one half in shadow [47].

LIVING TRADITIONS

Among modern indigenous cultures, astronomy still plays an important role. Many ceremonies and customs regarding traditional time keeping, religious rites, and

astronomical knowledge are still practiced.

The Lakota continue to conduct an annual summer solstice ritual known as the

Wi Wahyag Wachipi, or “Dance looking at the Sun.” This is a spiritual rite that incorporates spiritual and astronomical themes. Dancers perform acts of personal sacrifice and bloodletting around a symbolic celestial pole. Anthropologists believe that this ritual is a remnant of an ancient sun watching ceremony of the Pueblo people [19].

The Navajo continue to teach astronomical knowledge to their younger generation, through the use of string games. Said to have been taught to the ancient Navajo by

the Spider Woman that wove the night sky, children are taught a series of seven string patterns which they can form with their fingers. These represent the seven major constellations of tribal lore, what we would now recognize as - Scorpio, Cassiopeia, the Pleiades, Taurus, Canis Major, Ursa Major, and Orion [58].

In Mexico, the modern descendents of the Quiche Maya continue to practice their ancient religion. Shamans known as the "Day Keepers" observe the cycles of the sun, moon, stars, and planets in order to maintain the traditional calendar, which forms the basis of communal life. The principle focus of the calendar is based on the cycle of Venus, and the 260 day tzolkin calendar [59].

THE FUTURE OF ARCHAEO-ASTRONOMICAL RESEARCH IN NORTH AMERICA

Currently, many prehistoric sites have already been destroyed, and many other are

in danger. Many exist on privately owned land, and others are threatened by development. In Wisconsin alone, between 15,000 - 20,000 effigy mounds have been destroyed by development [27]. Large tracts such as the east